How the Papacy Works

Browse the article How the Papacy Works

Introduction to How the Papacy Works

Inside the Vatican See VR: The Vatican Shoot for some incredible views of the inside of the Vatican.

The Catholic population, meaning those who have been baptized by the Roman Catholic Church, cracked the one billion mark in 2001, according to the church's Pontifical Yearbook. Catholicism is by far the largest Christian denomination in the world, and more than 62 million Americans belong to the Catholic Church.

Photo courtesy Adam J. Polczyk-Przybyla / DHD Multimedia Gallery
Inside the Vatican

Catholics look to Vatican City in Rome, where the pope lives, for their spiritual leadership. The pope is the head of the Roman Catholic Church and the Vatican's head of state. The pope's governance of the Catholic Church is termed his Papacy. You often hear the pope called by many other names, including Papa, Vicar of Christ, Holy Father, and Bishop of Rome.

In this article, we will examine the jurisdiction of the Papacy of the Roman Catholic Church, discuss how someone becomes pope, and review some of the duties a pope performs.

Pope Benedict XVI
Born: April 16, 1927
Birthplace: Marktl am Inn, Germany
Original name: Joseph Ratzinger
Elected pope: April 19, 2005

Only three days after his 78th birthday, Joseph Ratzinger was named as the successor to Pope John Paul II -- making him the oldest Pope at the time of his election in more than 250 years. During his first mass as Pope, Benedict XVI declared that he wants to work toward unifying all Christians. He also stated that he wants to continue an "open and sincere dialogue" with other religions.

Reportedly, Ratzinger took on the name "Benedict" in honor of the last Pope Benedict (Benedict XV, an Italian, served as Pope from 1914 to 1922).

An accomplished linguist much like his predecessor John Paul II (who spoke eight languages), Benedict XVI speaks 10 languages.

Life Highlights

1944 - Drafted into the Austrian Legion

1944 - Entered into basic training of German infantry; deserted German army

1951 - Ordained into the priesthood

1953 - Earned doctorate in theology from the University of Munich

1969 - Accepted teaching position at the University of Regensburg (where he later earned the positions of Dean and Vice President)

1977 - Named archbishop of Munich and Freising; declared cardinal of Munich by Pope Paul VI

1981 - Became Prefect for the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith

2005 - Named successor to Pope John Paul II, takes name Pope Benedict XVI

Papal Authority

As head of the Roman Catholic Church, the pope is the supreme spiritual leader of the Church and controls the church doctrine. With a billion followers, the pope's decisions impact societies and governments all over the world.

Photo courtesy Adam J. Polczyk-Przybyla / DHD Multimedia Gallery
Pope John Paul II at his window above St. Peter's Square in Vatican City

To understand the authority of the papacy, we should first understand a little history of the Roman Catholic Church.

The Catholic Church dates back to the time of Jesus Christ, when Christ selected Peter to lead his Church. In the book of Matthew (16:18) of the Bible, Christ says to Peter, "And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it." This statement, now known as the Petrine guarantee, gave Peter the fullness of power, according to the New Catholic Encyclopedia.

Many theologians believe the "rock" of which Christ spoke is Peter himself. Peter's original name was Simon; Christ gave Peter another name, Cephas, an Aramaic word meaning "rock." Aramaic is the language that Christ spoke. Knowing this, Matthew 16:18 can be interpreted as Christ saying that he is building his Church on the strength of Peter. Further evidence of this conferment of power is in John 21:15-19, when Christ tells Peter, "Feed my sheep."

Upon Christ's ascension, Peter became the undisputed leader of the Church based on the powers given from Christ to Peter. At some point in his life, likely at the end of his life, Peter moved to Rome to spread the word of Christ, according to the New Catholic Encyclopedia. It was in Rome where Nero, the Roman emperor who persecuted the church, killed Peter. Through his death, Peter became a martyr. His body was buried on Vatican Hill. St. Peter's Cathedral was later erected over his grave.

Photo courtesy Caroline Skene / DHD Multimedia Gallery
St. Peter’s Square in Vatican City

During his life, Peter was never officially the bishop of Rome or the pope, but in honor of his work and his role as the head of the Church, he is recognized as the first pope. Every pope since Peter is considered the immediate successor of Peter, and not of that pope's immediate predecessor. A pope is considered to be carrying on the power that Christ granted Peter. Today, a great amount of the pope's powers are derived from the Petrine guarantee, which is etched in Latin around the perimeter of dome of St. Peter's Cathedral.

The pope's powers were bolstered in the First Vatican Council in 1870, when 433 bishops passed the decree of papal infallibility. This decree declared that the pope was infallible in matters of faith and morality. According to the decree, the pope "is possessed of that infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer wished His Church to be endowed."

The next two sections explain the process of papal succession.

A Papal Who's Who John Paul II was the either the 265th or 266th pope of the Catholic Church, depending on the source. As the head of the Catholic Church, the papacy has always carried power and recognition, but there are some popes who stand out through history. Here are a few of them:

St. Peter (64 or 67) - Although he never carried the title of pope or bishop of Rome in his lifetime, he is considered to be the first pope of the Catholic Church.
St. Leo I (440-461) - He is one of three popes known to have the title "The Great" attached to his name. Leo bolstered the power of the papacy by issuing the Petrine Theory. According to this theory, Jesus appointed Peter as the head of the Christian Church, and evidence is found in the scripture.
St. Leo III (795-816) - He crowned Charlemagne on Christmas Day in 800, an event that marked the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire.
John XII (955-964) - He is believed to be the youngest pope in history, elected at approximately 18 years of age, according to Encyclopedia Britannica.
Innocent III (1198 - 1216) - He was elected pope at age 37. During a period when the imperial throne was empty, Innocent agreed to be guardian for King Frederick II of Sicily, whom Innocent would later crown emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. When Innocent accepted the guardianship of Frederick, Frederick's mother surrendered political rule of Sicily to Innocent.
Gregory XI (1370-1378) - He returned the papal seat to Rome after a nearly 70-year period in which the papacy resided in Avignon, France. Later, after Gregory's death, this move back to Rome would cause the Great Schism (1378-1415), during which there were two popes: one from Avignon and one from Rome.
Blessed John XXIII (1958-1963) - He influenced church doctrine by convening the Second Vatican Council, which brought together church leaders to discuss the possibilities of modernizing the church.
John Paul II (1978 to 2005) - He was the first Slavic pope, often credited with helping to end communism in Central and Eastern Europe. John Paul II was also the most traveled pope in history.

The Passing of a Pontiff

When a pope dies, the non-theological authority of the papacy passes temporarily to the Cardinal Camerlengo, or chamberlain, who is the Vatican's Secretary of State. Camerlengo has many responsibilities when the pope dies. First, he confirms the pope's death by calling the pope's name three times without response. He then authorizes the pope's death certificate, and closes and locks the pope's private apartment in the Apostolic Palace of the Vatican. The Camerlengo also organizes and presides over the election of the next pope.

Photo courtesy Adam J. Polczyk-Przybyla / DHD Multimedia Gallery
St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City

At the time of death, the Camerlengo removes the Ring of the Fisherman, which the pope receives from the Camerlengo upon his election. Popes have worn the Ring of the Fisherman for over 800 years, according to The Catholic Encyclopedia. The gold ring includes an image of St. Peter in a boat, fishing, encircled by the name of the current pope. It and the pope's seals are destroyed during the Camerlengo's first meeting with the Cardinals following the pope's death.

The pope's body lies in repose for nine consecutive days, during which time the Cardinals of the Catholic Church celebrate the funeral rites. No one is allowed to photograph or film the pope while he is on his sickbed or after his death. The Cardinal Camerlengo may permit post-mortem photographs for documentary purposes only after the pope is attired in his pontifical vestments.

Prior to burial, the pope's body is placed inside a coffin that is encased in two others. The coffins are made of cypress, elm, and lead. The pope is typically buried in the tombs below St. Peter's Basilica, where St. Peter is buried.

During the time between the pope's death and the election of a new pope, the world focuses on the tiny sovereignty of Vatican City. In the next section, we will examine the complex process by which a pope is elected.

Electing the Next Pope

The College of Cardinals elects a new pope in conclave, which is the process of sequestering the voting members of the college in Vatican City so that they have no contact with the outside world. The word "conclave" comes from the Latin phrase cum clavis, meaning "with key." The term is suitable since the cardinals are locked inside the Sistine Chapel in the Apostolic Palace during the voting process.

Where's That? Click here to view a map of Vatican City.

A conclave begins no earlier than 15 days and no later than 20 days after the pope's death. Cardinals participating in conclave stay in St. Martha's House, a hospice inside the Vatican that has 130 rooms. Arrangements are made to ensure that the cardinals are not approached as they are transported between St. Martha's and the Sistine Chapel.

In 1996, Pope John Paul II described the complex procedures that would be used to elect the next successor to St. Peter, in an Apostolic Constitution called Universi Dominici Gregis (UDG). It is an accepted practice for popes to publish the norms that regulate the election of their successors, and popes often make small adjustments to the procedures. According to John Paul II, these changes are made "with the intention of responding to the needs of the particular historical moment."

The UDG laid out these rules for electing a new pope:

The maximum number of electors from the College of Cardinals is 120. The college is currently composed of 194 cardinals.
Any cardinal who turns 80 before the day the Papacy is vacated, either by death or resignation, cannot take part in the election. Currently, 135 cardinals are eligible to vote under this rule (15 of those 135 would be disqualified from the vote because the limit is 120).
A two-thirds-plus-one majority is required to elect a pope.
Two ballots each are held in the morning and afternoon, for a total of four per day.
If a new pope is not selected after 12 to 13 days, the cardinals may choose to impose a majority vote, which would allow selection of a new pope by a simple majority.

Each rectangular ballot is inscribed at the top with the words Eligo in Summum Pontificem, meaning "I elect as supreme pontiff." Below these words, each cardinal writes down the name of the person he chooses as the pope. The vote is done in secret with paper and pen. The voting cardinal then folds the ballot twice, holds it in the air, and carries it the chapel's altar. He then says, "I call as my witness Christ the Lord who will be my judge, that my vote is given to the one who before God I think should be elected." The cardinal places the ballot on a plate that sits atop the ballot receptacle and uses the plate to drop the ballot into the receptacle. After bowing before the altar, he returns to his seat.

Three Scrutineers, who are selected by all of the cardinals, are charged with counting the ballots. Once the ballots are collected, the Scrutineers count the ballots to determine if everyone has voted. If the number of ballots doesn't match the number of electors, the ballots are immediately burned and another vote is taken.

Here are the steps for the vote-tallying procedure:

The first Scrutineer takes a ballot, notes the name on it, and passes it to the next Scrutineer.
The second Scrutineer notes the name and passes it to the third Scrutineer.
The third Scrutineer reads aloud the name on the ballot, pierces the ballot with a needle through the word Eligo at the top of the ballot, and slides the ballot onto a string of thread.
Each elector notes the name that is read.
Once all ballots are read, the Scrutineers write down the official count on a separate sheet of paper.
The third Scrutineer ties the ends of the thread on which the ballots are placed in a knot to preserve the vote.
The ballots are placed in a receptacle.

After each vote, the ballots and any notes regarding them are burned. Smoke from the burning of the ballots appears over the Vatican Palace. If no pope has been chosen, a chemical is applied to the ballots in order to create black smoke when burned. White smoke signals that a pope has been elected.

The newly elected pope remains pope for the term of his life, or until he retires. His reign is referred to as a pontificate. In the next section, you will learn what the pope does during his pontificate.

New Life, New Name As the newly elected pope accepts his new role, it is tradition for him to select a new name. This papal tradition dates to 533 and the election of Pope John II, whose birth name was Mercurius, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia. Mercurius is derived from Mercury, a pagan Roman god. Believing that a successor of St. Peter should not carry a name belonging to a pagan religion, Mercurius chose to change his name upon his election to honor a previous pope.

While some that followed John II chose to retain their original name, it soon became commonplace for new popes to choose a new moniker. The name change also symbolizes the new life that the new pope is entering as the head of the Catholic Church. Typically, the new pope selects the name of his favorite Saint or a former pope whom he admires.

John Paul II chose his name to honor his predecessor, John Paul I, who died just 33 days after being elected pope. John Paul I chose his name to honor predecessors Pope John XXIII and Pope Paul VI.

The Next Pope

Photo courtesy Office of the Public Registrar Public Papers
Pope John Paul II with U.S. President Clinton and then-First Lady Hillary Clinton, St. Louis, MO, 1999

Once the new pope is elected, he meets with the Cardinal Deacon, the Secretary of the College of Cardinals, the Cardinal Dean, and the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations. The Cardinal Dean asks the elected pope two questions:

Do you accept your canonical election as Supreme Pontiff?
By what name do you wish to be called?

If the elected pope accepts, the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations certifies the acceptance by the new pope, as well as the pope's choice of name. The elected person immediately becomes the Bishop of Rome, which gives him supreme power of the Catholic Church. Each Cardinal elector then approaches the newly elected pope to pay homage and show his obedience to the pope.

After an election, it is tradition for the oldest cardinal in conclave to step to the balcony above St. Peter's Square and announce, "Habemus papam," which means "We have a new pope." The new pope then steps out on the balcony, addressing the world as pope for the first time, and imparts the Apostolic Blessing.

Once his inauguration is over, the new pope begins the day-to-day duties of papal responsibility. As spiritual leader of the world's largest religious following, and as the Vatican's head of state, the pope's responsibilities are vast. Here are just a few of his duties and activities:

Serves as bishop of the archdiocese of Rome, providing spiritual guidance to its members
Appoints bishops and cardinals
Presides at beatification and canonization ceremonies
Spreads the word of the Roman Catholic Church through his travels
Writes documents that define the Catholic Church's official position on issues facing the world
Confers with global leaders and politicians about these issues

The role of pope has evolved greatly in 2,000 years. At one time, the pope crowned emperors and carried military power. Today, the pope's secular power and duties are diminished, but the position still carries great spiritual influence as the leader of the world's largest religious sect.

Photo courtesy FirstGov.gov
The U.S. Secret Service escorting Pope John Paul II during a visit to the United States

For more information on the Papacy, the Catholic Church and related topics, check out the links on the next page.

Lots More Information

Consumer Guide:

How the Papacy Works